1. Learning Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
- 1.3.1 Understand and explain the effects of systematic errors (including zero errors) and random errors in measurements.
- 1.3.2 Understand the distinction between precision and accuracy.
2. Language Objectives
After completing this lesson, you should be able to:
- Define and differentiate between systematic errors, random errors, precision, and accuracy using appropriate scientific terminology.
- Describe real-world examples of each type of error and their impact on experimental data.
- Discuss strategies for minimizing different types of errors in practical investigations.
- Explain the importance of reporting uncertainties in scientific measurements.
3. Key Terms
Familiarize yourself with the following essential terms:
| Term (English) | Translation (Russian) | Translation (Kazakh) |
|---|---|---|
| Systematic Error | Систематическая ошибка | Жүйелі қате |
| Random Error | Случайная ошибка | Кездейсоқ қате |
| Precision | Точность (воспроизводимость) | Дәлдік (қайталанушылық) |
| Accuracy | Правильность (близость к истинному значению) | Дұрыстық (шындық мәніне жақындық) |
| Uncertainty | Погрешность / Неопределенность | Белгісіздік / Қателік |
| Zero Error | Нулевая ошибка | Нөлдік қате |
| Resolution | Разрешение | Ажыратымдылық |
| Anomalous Reading | Аномальное значение | Аномальды көрсеткіш |
3.1 Flashcards
Test your knowledge with these flashcards:
[Flashcard Placeholder]
(e.g., Use a WordPress flashcard plugin shortcode here to display interactive flashcards for the terms above.)
Front: Systematic Error
Back: A consistent, repeatable error associated with faulty equipment or a flawed experimental design.
[Flashcard Placeholder]
Front: Precision
Back: The closeness of agreement between independent measurements obtained under the same conditions.
4. Glossary
- Systematic Error:
- A consistent, repeatable error associated with faulty equipment or a flawed experimental design. These errors can often be identified and corrected.
- Random Error:
- Unpredictable variations in measurements that occur due to uncontrolled factors. These errors cannot be eliminated but can be reduced by taking multiple readings and calculating an average.
- Precision:
- The closeness of agreement between independent measurements obtained under the same conditions. It refers to the reproducibility of measurements, regardless of their proximity to the true value.
- Accuracy:
- The closeness of a measured value to the true or accepted value. A measurement is accurate if it is very close to the true value.
- Uncertainty:
- A quantitative estimate of the doubt about the result of a measurement. It indicates the range within which the true value is expected to lie.
- Zero Error:
- A type of systematic error where a measuring instrument does not read zero when it should. This can lead to all subsequent readings being consistently too high or too low.
- Resolution:
- The smallest change in the quantity being measured that can be detected by a measuring instrument. It is often determined by the smallest division on the scale of the instrument.
- Anomalous Reading:
- A reading that falls outside the expected range of measurements or does not fit the pattern of other readings. Anomalous readings are often due to a mistake during the experiment and should be investigated or excluded from calculations.
5. Theory of Errors and Uncertainties
In physics, all measurements are subject to some degree of **_error_** or **_uncertainty_**. It is crucial to understand these limitations to interpret experimental results accurately and to design effective experiments. Errors can generally be categorized into two main types: systematic errors and random errors.
Systematic Errors
A **_systematic error_** is a consistent, repeatable error associated with faulty equipment or a flawed experimental design. These errors consistently shift measurements in the same direction, either consistently higher or consistently lower than the true value. They affect the **_accuracy_** of a measurement.
Examples of systematic errors include:
- **_Zero Error_**: When a measuring instrument does not read zero when it should. For example, a balance that reads 0.5 g when nothing is on it will add 0.5 g to every measurement. This can be a **_positive zero error_** (reading too high) or a **_negative zero error_** (reading too low).
- **_Incorrect Calibration_**: An instrument that is not properly calibrated will give consistently false readings.
- **_Observer Bias_**: A person consistently reading a scale from an incorrect angle (**_parallax error_**) can lead to systematic errors.
Systematic errors affect the **_accuracy_** of measurements. They can often be identified and corrected by proper calibration, adjusting the experimental setup, or applying a correction factor to the results.
Random Errors
**_Random errors_** are unpredictable variations in measurements that occur due to uncontrolled factors. These errors cause readings to fluctuate around the true value in an inconsistent way. They affect the **_precision_** of a measurement.
Examples of random errors include:
- **_Fluctuations in experimental conditions_**: Tiny, unpredictable changes in temperature, air currents, or voltage supply.
- **_Human Reaction Time_**: In timing experiments, the slight variation in when an individual starts or stops a stopwatch.
- **_Difficulty in reading a scale_**: Estimating the last digit on an analogue scale due to limitations in the instrument’s **_resolution_**.
Random errors cannot be eliminated, but their effect can be reduced by taking multiple readings and calculating an average. The more readings taken, the closer the average will be to the true value.
Precision vs. Accuracy
It is important to understand the distinction between **_precision_** and **_accuracy_**.
- **_Accuracy_** refers to how close a measurement is to the true or accepted value. A highly accurate measurement has a small systematic error.
- **_Precision_** refers to the consistency or reproducibility of a set of measurements. A highly precise measurement has a small random error. If you repeat a measurement multiple times and get very similar results each time, your measurements are precise.
Think of it like throwing darts at a target:
- If all your darts are clustered tightly together but far from the bullseye, your throws are **_precise_** but not **_accurate_**. This indicates a significant systematic error (e.g., you’re consistently aiming too far left).
- If your darts are spread out all over the board but average out around the bullseye, your throws are **_accurate_** but not **_precise_**. This indicates significant random errors (e.g., your aim is inconsistent).
- If all your darts are tightly clustered around the bullseye, your throws are both **_precise_** and **_accurate_**. This is the ideal scenario in experimental measurements.

Uncertainty in Measurements
No measurement is ever exact. There is always an **_uncertainty_** associated with any measurement. This uncertainty arises from the limitations of the measuring instrument, the method of measurement, and the skill of the experimenter.
The uncertainty is typically expressed as a range, e.g., $10.0 pm 0.1$ cm. This means the true value is expected to lie between 9.9 cm and 10.1 cm. The $pm$ value is the absolute uncertainty.
For analogue instruments, the uncertainty is often taken as half the smallest division on the scale. For digital instruments, it’s typically the smallest increment the instrument can display.
When combining measurements, uncertainties must be combined appropriately:
- **_Adding/Subtracting Quantities_**: Add absolute uncertainties.
If $X = A + B$ or $X = A — B$, then $Delta X = Delta A + Delta B$. - **_Multiplying/Dividing Quantities_**: Add percentage or fractional uncertainties.
If $X = A times B$ or $X = A / B$, then $frac{Delta X}{X} = frac{Delta A}{A} + frac{Delta B}{B}$. - **_Raising to a Power_**: Multiply percentage uncertainty by the power.
If $X = A^n$, then $frac{Delta X}{X} = n frac{Delta A}{A}$.
Understanding and reporting uncertainties is a fundamental part of scientific practice, providing a measure of the reliability of experimental data.
(Content adapted from Cambridge AS & A Level Physics curriculum resources, and inspired by content found on physicsandmathtutors.com and savemyexams.com)
6. Exercises on Memorization of Lesson Terms
Complete the following exercises to reinforce your understanding of the key terms:
- Match the Definition: Match each term with its correct definition.
Terms: Systematic Error, Random Error, Precision, Accuracy, Zero Error
Definitions:
- The closeness of agreement between independent measurements.
- A consistent, repeatable error often due to faulty equipment.
- Unpredictable variations in measurements due to uncontrolled factors.
- The closeness of a measured value to the true value.
- An instrument reading a non-zero value when it should read zero.
- True or False: Indicate whether each statement is true or false. Correct any false statements.
a) Increasing the number of readings helps to reduce systematic errors.
b) An experiment that is precise but not accurate has a high random error.
c) A positive zero error means all readings will be consistently lower than the true value.
- Fill in the Blanks: Complete the sentences using the appropriate terms.
a) ______________ errors affect the accuracy of a measurement, while ______________ errors affect its precision.
b) If your measuring instrument reads 2.0 cm when it should read 0.0 cm, you have a ______________ error.
c) To improve the ______________ of your results, you should repeat your experiment multiple times and average your readings.
7. Video Resources
Watch this video to gain further insight into errors and uncertainties in measurements:
Additional Resources:
8. Worked Examples of Problem Solving
Example 1: Identifying Error Types
A student uses a stopwatch to measure the time it takes for a pendulum to complete 20 oscillations. They repeat the measurement three times and get the following results: 30.1 s, 30.3 s, 30.0 s. The actual time for 20 oscillations is 29.5 s.
- Calculate the average time measured by the student.
- Comment on the precision and accuracy of the student’s measurements.
- Suggest one possible source of random error and one possible source of systematic error in this experiment.
Image related to pendulum experiment:

Example 2: Calculating Uncertainty
The length of a table is measured as $1.50 pm 0.02$ m and its width as $0.80 pm 0.01$ m. Calculate the area of the table and the absolute uncertainty in the area.
9. Research Assignment: Exploring Measurement Tools and Errors with Simulations
Use the PhET simulation to explore how different measuring instruments work and how their limitations contribute to uncertainties and errors. This will help you visualize systematic and random errors in a practical context.
PhET Simulation: Measuring Devices
Instructions:
- Open the «Measure It!» simulation from PhET Colorado.
- Experiment with different measuring tools (ruler, protractor, timer) and objects.
- Try to measure the length of an object multiple times. Observe how your readings might vary.
- Think about how you could introduce a systematic error (e.g., always starting the ruler from an incorrect point).
- Consider how random errors might naturally occur (e.g., slight variations in eye position when reading the scale).
Questions for Reflection:
- Describe one way you could simulate a «zero error» using the ruler in the simulation.
- How does the resolution of the ruler in the simulation affect the precision of your measurements?
- What are some strategies you could use within the simulation to minimize random errors when measuring an object’s length?
10. Pair or Group Activity
Work with a partner or in a small group to complete the following interactive activity. This will help you discuss and solidify your understanding of precision and accuracy.
Activity from LearningApps.org: «Precision vs. Accuracy»
Instructions:
- Access the LearningApps activity linked above.
- As a pair/group, discuss each question and collectively decide on the correct answer.
- Pay attention to the feedback provided by the app and discuss why certain answers are correct or incorrect.
- If time permits, create your own simple «Match the Pairs» or «Quiz» activity on LearningApps.org using terms from this lesson.
11. Individual Task: Structured Questions
Answer the following structured questions to assess your understanding of errors and uncertainties. Show all your working for calculations.
- A student measures the length of a piece of wire using a ruler. They take five readings: 24.3 cm, 24.5 cm, 24.4 cm, 24.3 cm, 24.6 cm. The true length of the wire is 24.0 cm.
- Calculate the mean length of the wire.
- Comment on the precision of these measurements.
- Comment on the accuracy of these measurements.
- Suggest one possible source of systematic error in this experiment.
- Explain the difference between random errors and systematic errors, providing one example for each in a physics experiment.
- A student measures the mass of an object as $25.0 pm 0.5$ g and its volume as $5.0 pm 0.2$ cm$^3$.
- Calculate the density of the object.
- Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the mass.
- Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the volume.
- Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the density.
- Calculate the absolute uncertainty in the density.
- State the density with its absolute uncertainty.
- A student measures the period of a simple pendulum, $T$. They find that $T = 2.0 pm 0.1$ s. They want to calculate $T^2$.
- Calculate $T^2$.
- Calculate the percentage uncertainty in $T$.
- Calculate the percentage uncertainty in $T^2$.
- Calculate the absolute uncertainty in $T^2$.
- State $T^2$ with its absolute uncertainty.
- Describe how a **_zero error_** can affect the **_accuracy_** of measurements and suggest how to correct for it.
12. Further Resources
For more in-depth study and practice, explore these external resources:
13. Reflection
Take a few moments to reflect on what you’ve learned in this lesson. Consider the following questions:
- What was the most challenging concept for you in this lesson, and why?
- How has your understanding of experimental errors changed after this lesson?
- In what real-world scenarios might understanding precision and accuracy be particularly important?
- What is one key takeaway you will remember about handling uncertainties in your future experiments?
- How confident do you feel about applying the concepts of systematic and random errors in a practical setting?
Feel free to write down your reflections in a notebook or discuss them with a study partner.